Modernization Theory And Development Of Human Beings

Freedom is essential for the development of human beings. In order for individuals to be free, societies must guarantee a healthy environment which enables citizens to be governed by leaders that represent their interests. The system of government which allows for this is democracy. But democracy, which is a term that comes from the greek demos and kratos â€Å"rule of the people†, will only thrive under appropriate conditions. Modernization theory claims that economic and technological development are the factors conducive to democratic changes (Inglehart, 2014). Economic development is described as â€Å"a process that influences growth and restructuring of an economy to enhance the economic well being of a community, creating jobs and wealth, and improving the quality of life† (Anderson, n.d.). For a long time, Modernization Theory was widely accepted, but after analysing evidence of democratic changes in many nations gathered during the past decades a revised vers ion of it was proposed by Ronald Inglehart, known as the Evolutionary Modernization Theory. According to Inglehart (2014) economic development will tend to lead to democracy, but other outcomes are possible because there are many factors which influence what will happen. Economic development is the main factor that leads to democratization, but cultural change is the other factor that can determine the political outcome in a specific country. Most of the developed countries in the world have democratic regimes. As itShow MoreRelatedModernization Theory Vs Dependency Theory1227 Words   |  5 PagesModernization theory vs Dependency theory While many theorists have numerous explanations towards underdevelopment, experts like David Brooks and Peter Hallward have described the natural disaster in Haiti to be brutally destructive primarily due to its poverty. With this said, by reducing the poverty level in countries such as Haiti, it is possible to avoid the many disasters that they face. Reducing poverty means that society must accept development. What is development and how can it be achievedRead MoreModernization : A Principle That Looks At The Domestic Elements Of A Rustic With The Belief That Essay1474 Words   |  6 PagesIntroduction Modernization is a principle that looks at the domestic elements of a rustic with the belief that, with help underdeveloped nations can be brought to improvement in the use of the equal strategies that greater advanced nations used. Modernization concept specializes in the social factors which facilitate social progress and improvement of societies, and similarly aims to provide an explanation for the procedure of social evolution. This concept now not handiest stresses the manner ofRead MoreEffects of Modernization1291 Words   |  6 Pages(Also Modernization) is a concept in the sphere of social sciences that refers to process in which society goes through industrialization, urbanization and other social changes that completely transforms the lives of individuals. The concept of modernization comes from a view of societies as having a standard evolutionary pattern, as described in the social evolutionism theories. According to this each society would evolve inexorably from barbarism to ever greater levels of development and civilizationRead MoreModernization Theory Of The Post War Years1324 Words   |  6 Pages In his inaugural speech in 1949, Truman captured the United States’ optimistic sentiment with regards to development following the Second World War. The United States found themselves in a unique position where they had shown their military and technological prowess, were the only victor whose infrastructure had not been damaged by the war and saw themselves as the technological leader of the world and a model to be emulated. Along with growing fears about Cold War tensions and the threat of communismRead MoreModernization Theory Of India s Democracy1722 Words   |  7 Pagesemergence of democracy. The idea that economic development will lead to democratization and democratic consolidation generally holds for most cases. More often than not, increasing economic development increases the probability that any given society will have democratic politics. Although this theory is widely spread it does not seem to account for all cases, such as India. Due to the large population of India, the defying factors against modernization theory are not easily overlooked. Many scholars haveRead MoreGlobalization Of Cambodia863 Words   |  4 Pagesconsidered relatively homogenous, with 90% of the population being of Khmer origin and speaking the Khmer Language (â€Å"Cambodia population,† n.d.). The other ethnic groups that comprise a majority of the country are Chinese: 5% and Vietnamese: 1% (â€Å"Cambodia population,† n.d.). As a result of the civil war of Cambodia and the later genocide that occurred, about 50% of the modern population is under the age of 22, with the media n age being 24.9 years old (â€Å"Cambodia population,† n.d.). Over 95% of theRead MoreModernity And Technology922 Words   |  4 PagesInterestingly enough, technology is defined as, â€Å"a manner of accomplishing a task especially using  technical  processes, methods, or knowledge,† (Merriam Webster). This attributes a task being complete via an advanced method of methodology. With that in mind, this concept of technology could be referred to as being relative to a particular time space. Therefore, this paper refers to technology as within the digital age. Modernity relies on technology for its connect. It is not inherently the gadgetsRead MoreThe Recent Engagement Of Contemporary Islamic Thought With Modernity875 Words   |  4 PagesSerhan Tanriverdi Contemporary Islamic Thought Dr. Ermin Sinanovic Reflection Paper The Recent Engagement of Contemporary Islamic Thought with Modernity in the West Modernization theory has been one of the master theoretical narratives to understand the major institutional and cultural transformation from traditional societies to modern ones. It was developed by the founders of sociology and has dominated the widespread understanding and explanations of many social differentiation processes includingRead MoreFuture of Modernization1108 Words   |  5 Pagespeople forward by building on foundations of traditions. When traditions are lost, modernization sets in. Modernization is when technology blends with culture and they exist together in a contemporary time period. The main issue with modernization is that it is a continuing cycle of innovations and change that never cease and force the loss of traditions. There are four key concepts which help explain how modernization manifests; first, the decline of small, traditional communities, second, the increaseRead MoreThe Second Wave Of Democracy1682 Words   |  7 Pagesscholars to re-evaluate the leading theories on democratization in an attempt to correlate and understand this newest wave of democracy. Many of the countries that didn’t fit in this established wealthy, mostly â€Å"Western† mold, could be classified and explained by the voluntarist theory. In order for democracy to survive nations that didn’t fit this mold they had to overcome the structural obstacles, as highlighted by those scholars who proposed alternate theories of democratization. Nations were dependent

Nike s Goal Of Increasing Sales And Awareness Of The Brand

Sponsoring famous spouses, more specifically wives of famous athletes, to promote the growing athleisure trend will ensure Nike’s success in the increasing market. Teaming up with famous athletes’ wives like Jessie Decker, Kate Upton, and other professional athletes’ wives is something the firm will incorporate into their marketing tactics. These partnerships will be aimed towards promoting the firm s athleisure and regular products for women. Having these famous wives post pictures in athleisure gear will promote sales and awareness of the brand. Young girls look up to these women and seeing them wear Nike apparel makes them aware of brand and could creates an allure to the products. These women will include a link in the in their Instagram â€Å"about me† section that directs visitors to the Nike online store. As well as each post will have a link to products seen on the social media posting. This will help achieve Nike’s goal of increasing eComme rce sales. Getting wives whose husbands are already sponsored by Nike will ensure there isn t a conflict of interest. Having these famous wives include links that will navigate them directly to the product will also help achieve the firm s goal of increasing athleisure business to $10 billion and increase the percentage it contributes to the firm’s annual revenue. Tactic B: To attract younger athletes, Nike strives to make a greater impact on local communities by increasing sponsorships to underprivileged schools and donatingShow MoreRelatedBusiness Btec unit 3 p11160 Words   |  5 Pagesfirm s  goals  can be best achieved through identification and  satisfaction of the  customers stated and unstated  needs and wants. Companies should identify the needs of their customer and produce products and services to satisfy those needs. 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So Nike contracted with many athletes spokesperson, professional teams and college athletic teams to advertise and promote their products to customers. One renowned example of Nike marketing strategyRead MoreThe Global Fitness And Athletic Clothing Stores1637 Words   |  7 Pageshigh quality apparel for the ever-growing global health conscious population (WHO | World Health Statistics 2015, 2016). A SWOT analysis (Appendix 1) illustrates potential and weakness of this hugely successful brand. Furthermore, environmental factors can play a role in the company s operations. Macro Environmental Factors – Demographics forces make up the market segments therefore it is an important factor to any business. Including, age, gender, ethnicity, location, lifestyle and other statisticsRead MoreA Swot Analysis Of Lululemon s Market1692 Words   |  7 PagesI. 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A SWOT analysis in appendix 2 reveals the sustainable niche of Lululemon’s marketRead MoreSocial Media Marketing As A Marketing Tool Essay2125 Words   |  9 PagesThe main goal of Social media marketing is to produce such content that users will share with there social network so that company can increase brand exposure and can broaden costumer reach Social media marketing became popular with increase popularity of social networking websites such as twitter, Facebook, Myspace , Linkledin, Google+ and pinterset ADVANTAGES OF SOCIAL MEDIA MARKETING 1.Increased brand recognition – One of the main benefits of social media marketing is increased brand recognition

Timber Project Essay Research Paper 1 free essay sample

Timber Project Essay, Research Paper 1. Timber has been a edifice stuff since adult male foremost came out of his cave. The grounds for this are due to timber being a plentiful merchandise and the belongingss it holds, being that lumber is high in strength, light weight, and moderately lasting. Timber can be cut and shaped easy without the usage of machines. Prehistoric adult male found that these belongingss were ideal for edifice houses, boats, and Bridgess. Timber is now has many different utilizations, including paper, furniture, doors, Windowss, cosmetic objects and structural members etc. The utilizations for lumber is eternal and every bit long as the replanting continues and our resources are retained coevalss to come will bask the benefits lumber has given us. There are two categories of lumber: Gymnosperms ( Evergreen, deal, conifer ) These are the most crude type of tree, the foliages are in the signifier of acerate leafs they have one chief root and a conelike form to the crown e. g. Douglas fir rather speedy to turn. Angiosperms ( deciduous hardwood ) These are blooming workss and are more advanced in development than conifers. They have wide foliages, multiple roots and a ball-shaped Crown form. E.g. Oak, Walnut. Slow to maturate and expensive to buy compared to softwood. In a life tree the sapwood is merely under the bark of the tree. The sapwood is the trees transit system for foods, sugar and H2O. The duramen in the Centre of the bole provides structural stableness for the tree. The sapwood following to the duramen is in the procedure of being converted to duramen. The sapwood has a higher MC than the duramen. 2. Properties of lumber Tensile strength The tensile strength of wood is non great. The molecular construction of the cells of the wood tear apart easy but can be compressed with a high sum of force before the wood disfigures. Beams used in utmost tenseness are normally made of steel or re-enforced concrete. Timber can hold utmost fluctuations in strength with different species of wood and different parts of the tree. 3. Compressive strength The compressive strength of wood in an mean piece of lumber with a denseness of 513 kg/m| has the compressive strength of 30 # 8211 ; 40N/mX Timber has a higher compressive strength than tenseness strength due to the wood being cellular. The cells can grip on to each other keeping the wood together. Concrete has a greater compressive strength than lumber but less in tenseness. Old ages ago the wood strength was non known, this lead to the complete specification of many edifices, and blowing valuable resources. With today s engineering stuffs can be used to their maximal possible minimising waste and over specifying. 4. Elasticity Timber is an elastic stuff, which means when a mass is put on a piece of lumber it deflects and when the mass is removed the lumber returns back to its original place, up to a certain good defined bound of emphasis. The output emphasis point can change on the size, and type of lumber. Timber can change in strength. So frequently the emphasis scaling of the lumber is greatly under estimated. 5. Water Absorption It is recommended that the wet content of lumber be kept below 20 % , if any greater sum of wet is present so decomposing and insect infestation can happen ; the normal mean wet content is 12 % . The airing of the wood is a really of import facet of design, if lumber is kept dry and ventilated it can last a considerable sum of clip. The weight of dry wood = Wd The wet content = MC The wet weight = Wm MC = Wm Wd. 100 % a. Wd Timber which has wet content of 100 % means that the weight of the H2O is equal to the weight of the wood. It is possible for lumber to hold several hundred per centum MC. The loss and addition in wet within the wood causes shriveling and swelling in all waies this can do many jobs and have terrible effects 6. Water repellant Naturally wood absorbs H2O and does non drive, the wood needs sealing with a H2O immune stuff i.e. pigment or varnish. The wood can be treated with preservative to try to battle both insect and fungi onslaught. Preservative intervention of lumber involves presenting sable chemicals into the wood construction protecting it from fungi onslaught. Preservation of lumber is insurance, non an alibi for cutting corners or turning a blind oculus to mistakes in design or craft. No lumber is wholly immune to disintegrate and in much the same manner no preservative intervention provides absolute protection. ( TRADA wood information ) A big figure of interventions available for wood are in the appendix. 7. Conduction of Electricity Timber does carry on little sums of electricity it is non the cells of the wood, which conducts, it is the wet content in the lumber, which conducts the electricity. Moisture metres use this rule for mensurating the MC of wood. 8. Thermal insularity Thermal conduction ( K ) is a step of the rate of heat transportation through a given thickness and country of the stuff from FACE to FACE. The units for this are W = Watts, m = meter, mX = country, K = Kelvin, there for W/mK+ . Timber is non frequently used in the building industry for its thermic belongingss it is more normally used for structural and cosmetic grounds. ( See figure 1 ) Figure 1 Bulk Densitykg/m3 Material Thermal conduction ( K ) W/mK Thermal electric resistances ( lk ) mK/W 513 Softwoods A ; plywood s 0.124 8.07 769 Hardwoods 0.16 6.25 961 Plaster board 0.16 6.25 2260 Concrete 1:2:4 1.44 0.69 1700 Brickwork 1.45-0.73 0.69-1.38 16 ; 24 Expanded polystyrene 0.035 28.6 ; 30.4 Timber is a natural dielectric. Air pockets within its cellular construction make timber a natural barrier to heat and cold. Wood combined with fibreglass insularity provides an first-class dielectric. Since thermic conduction additions with denseness, lightweight lumber is a better dielectric than heavy lumber. Thermal conduction varies somewhat with wet content and natural features such as cheques, knots and grain. The thermic conduction of steel is about 400 times that of lumber ; concre Te 10 times, brick and glass 6 times. Mineral wool has 1/3 of the conduction of lumber. Mentions: Timber Datafile P1 Timber Species and Properties of the NAFI Timber Manual Timber Species and Properties 9. Thermal Motion By and large the thermic motion of lumber is little about 13.3mm / metre which make this an ideal stuff for an country with a big temperature scope i.e. a roof infinite with the temperature runing from every bit low as 10|C up to 40|C lumber is an ideal stuff for this intent. Expansion articulations are non usually required even in big constructions. A rise in temperature of 1.C can cut down the strength of lumber by 0.3 % . 10. Acoustic belongingss of lumber Acousticss is the scientific discipline of all hearable sounds. Room acoustics is control of wanted sounds within a room. The control of unwanted sounds in a edifice is sound insularity. Timber can play a big portion in both room acoustics and sound insularity. An of import acoustical belongings of lumber is its ability to muffle quivers. The cellular web of meshing pores converts sound energy into heat energy by clash, the quiver of the fibers causes heat. Wood has more muffling capacity than most structural stuffs. Muffling reduces the inclination of constructions to convey quivers long distances ; it besides reduces the magnitude of resonating quivers, bettering the public presentation of wood paneling as a brooding surface. Mention: Timber Datafile P1 Timber Species and Properties, NAFI Timber Manual. 11. Cell construction Structural burden can be supported by utilizing cylinders in the signifier of pipes, this is true for the construction of a tree within the monocular construction of the tree there are 100s of cannular cells running longitudinal to the tree bole, this type of cell construction gives the tree its natural strength. The lumber fibers are composed of cellulose and hemicelluloses and these are bonded together basically by lignin. Softwoods by and large contain more lignin than hardwoods The mean proportions in dry wood are: 45 to 60 % Cellulose 10 to 20 % Hemicelluloses 20 to 35 % Lignin ( Ref 7 ) ( pg 31 ) 12. Lastingness The lastingness of lumber is merely concerned with the duramen and non the sapwood. The sapwood of most species is non really lasting and should non be used in open conditions. In BS EN 350-1, is the usher to natural lastingness, which is split into 5 categories for the lastingness of the lumber? Class 1. V Durable Ebony Class 2. Durable Mahogany American Class 3. Reasonably lasting Mahogany African Class 4. Slightly lasting Maple Class 5. Not lasting European Ash The most common type of debasement is fungi onslaught which can go on anyplace. When the wet content of the wood reaches over 20 % the common manner to forestall the wet making this high is to air out the lumber, so any wet can vaporize. Preservative intervention is discussed in the appendix. 13. Suitability Joinery of lumbers ; both hardwoods and deals can be used for joinery plant. Softwoods can be selected for its belongingss. If the coating is to be painted the type of wood is non excessively of import due to fact that the grain will non be seen. Softwood lumbers are normally used in this case. Hardwoods are normally left their natural coloring material and treated with preservative or coated with a clear varnish to widen their life anticipation. The coloring material and type of grain are of import when choosing a type of hardwood. When high-class joinery work is involved. Timber can be prepared ; unsmooth sawn or planed, each is suited for a different type of plants i.e. : Rough sawn lumber would be used for roof trusses and floor joists which are strictly structural and non normally seen. Cheap deals are normally used for this type of work. This lumber is treated due to it being portion of the construction of the edifice. Planed lumber, which is more expensive to bring forth whether deal or hardwood can be used in, furniture, Windowss, hedging boards, door liners, step instances etc and many more different merchandises. Workss of a windmill in Poland the chief beams are oak and the dentitions are apple wood. 14. Economic considerations Timber is a natural merchandise, a renewable energy resource it can be regenerated over clip, the deals like pine are comparatively speedy to turn but the hardwoods are slower to turn and hence more expensive to buy. Conveyance and edifices are the major manufacturers of C dioxide because they are the chief energy users. In the UK, edifices account for around 50 % of the state # 8217 ; s C dioxide emanations. Timber can assist to run into the menace of planetary heating in three ways: Trees absorb C dioxide and release O into the ambiance through the natural procedure of photosynthesis ( See fig 1, ref 7 ) . A immature tree, turning in a decently managed wood, is a more effectual vehicle for C dioxide soaking up than a mature wood. Converting lumber into a useable edifice stuff takes far less energy, it generates less C dioxide, than virtually any other alternate including aluminum, steel and concrete. Once installed, wood is an highly effectual insulating stuff with a really high energy efficiency. Indeed, lumber framed houses are widely recognised as being top performing artists. ( Ref: 5 ) ( Ref 7 ) Britain has an active, booming forest sector, but the fact remains that we presently import about 80 % of all the lumber we use in this. + 69 % , derives from cone-bearing woods located chiefly in Scandinavia, Canada and Russia. + 3 % derives from deciduous woods in Europe and North America. + 8 % , is imported from tropical parts. + There are an estimated 223 sawmills in the UK the forest country sums to about 10 % of land country + Forests Forever is a run by Britain # 8217 ; s lumber industry to assist safeguard the woods of the universe, by back uping forest direction and regeneration undertakings. Correctly harvested, the lumber is non damaging the planetary environment. Wood is a renewable resource ; it is organic, non-toxic, reclaimable and biodegradable.

The Rise and Fall of Great Powers Essay Example

The Rise and Fall of Great Powers Essay The Rise and Fall of the Great Powers Economic change and Military conflict from 1500 to 2000 By Paul Kennedy Fontana Press, London, 1989. This fascinating book by Paul Kennedy, a professor of history at Yale University, is about the changing balance of power in the past 500 years. The book explains the interaction between economics strategy and relates military conflicts to economic progress. As the author puts it, â€Å"Wealth is usually needed to underpin military power and military power is usually needed to acquire and protect wealth. But if too much money is diverted towards military expenditures or if the state over extends itself by too many conquests, the results will not be satisfactory. There is a very significant correlation over the longer term between productive and revenue-raising capacities and military strength. Another point which the author emphasizes is that wealth and power are always relative. Also, a nation’s relative economic and military power may n ot rise and fall in parallel. There is a noticeable lag between the trajectory of a state’s relative economic strength and the trajectory of its military/territorial influence. According to the author, â€Å"Great powers in relative decline instinctively respond by spending more on security and thereby divert potential resources from investment and compound their long-term dilemma. † The Rise of the Western World In 1500, few could have predicted the tremendous economic progress the western world would make. Compared with other great centres of cultural and economic activity, Europe’s relative weaknesses were more apparent than its strengths. Europe had no significant advantages in culture, mathematics, engineering/navigational technologies, compared with other great Asian civilizations. Ming China, the Ottoman empire, the Moghuls, Russia and Japan all looked equally well placed compared to Europe. But Europe went ahead due to a combination of circumstances. There was political fragmentation. Different regions specialized in different products leading to a thriving trade. The decentralized, largely unsupervised growth of commerce and merchants and ports and markets allowed economic progress to take place unhindered. No systematic or universal plundering of merchants by a central authority could take place. We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise and Fall of Great Powers specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise and Fall of Great Powers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Rise and Fall of Great Powers specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In Europe, there were always some authorities willing to tolerate merchants and their ways even when others plundered and expelled them. Gradually, most of the regimes of Europe entered into a symbiotic relationship with the market economy, providing domestic order and a non-arbitrary legal system. In return, they received taxes. The development of long-range armed sailing ships heralded a fundamental advance in Europe’s place in the world. These vessels enabled the west to control the important sea trade routes. There was also an upward spiral in knowledge in science and technology, based on observation and experimentation. Printing presses helped disseminate knowledge. As Kennedy puts it, â€Å"In most cases, what was involved was not so much positive elements, but rather the reduction in the number of hindrances which checked economic growth and political diversity. Europe’s greatest advantage was that it had fewer disadvantages than other civilizations It was a combination of economic laissez faire, political and military pluralism and intellectual liberty, which had been in constant interaction to produce the European Miracle. † This mix of ingredients did not exist in Ming China or in the Muslim empires of the Middle East and Asia. As a result, these societies seemed to stand still while Europe advanced. The key ideas in this book †¢ Wealth is the basis for military power. †¢ Too protect wealth, military power is necessary. †¢ There is a significant correlation between a country’s ability to generate resources and its military power. †¢ Wealth and power are always relative †¢ Powerful countries, in order to protect their states must strike the right balance between defence, consumption and investment. †¢ The US will decline in the coming years but it will continue to be the leading power of the world in the foreseeable future. The Habsburg bid for Mastery, 1519-1659 During the period 1519-1659, a combination of kingdoms, provinces and duchies controlled by the Spanish and Austrian members of the Habsburg family threatened to become the predominant political authority in Europe. The Reformation had added a new dimension to the traditional dynastic rivalries of the continent. The intensity and scale of warfare also increased because of the network of territories controlled by the Habsburgs, stretching from Gibraltar to Hungary and from Sicily to Amsterdam. Moreover, the Habsburgs expanded their territory through marriage and inheritance. The first series of major wars was focused on Italy. There were also skirmishes in Germany. Over time, the Habsburgs found themselves in a weaker position compared to their rivals. In 1648, Spain made peace with the Dutch, finally recognizing their full independence. Then it became a Franco-Spanish war. The French finally teamed up with the British to deliver a crushing blow to the Spanish, leading to the Treaty of Pyrenees in 1659. Consequently, the political plurality of Europe remained intact. The Habsburgs failed for many reasons. The scale and costs of wars had increased significantly. So, the Habsburgs were involved in an almost continual struggle for solvency. The Austrians and Spanish failed also because they had too many empires to fight and too many fronts to defend. They had to face too many foes simultaneously. The other states like France, England and Sweden enjoyed certain periods of peace and discovery. But the Hasburgs moved from one conflict to another. The Spanish government also failed to mobilize available resources in the most efficient way. By acts of economic folly, it helped to erode its own power. The Habsburg monarchs resorted to a wide variety of expedients easy in the short term, but disastrous for the long-term good of the country. At the centre of the Spanish decline was the failure to preserve the economic underpinnings of a powerful military machine. Taxes were steadily increased but rarely fell on those who could pay. Taxes also hurt commerce. The government, in its desperation to raise cash, also sold off various privileges, monopolies and honours. It used various forms of deficit financing. The Spanish expelled Jews, terminated contracts with foreign universities, concentrated on larger vessels at the exclusion of more useful, smaller, trading vessels and sold monopolies which restricted trade. But the Habsburg failure was a relative one. It is not that the Habsburgs failed utterly to do what other powers achieved so brilliantly. All the participants in the wars fought by the Habsburgs were placed under severe strain due to the constant drain of resources for military and naval campaigns. The victory of the anti Habsburg forces was only a marginal and relative one. They may have managed their resources better and showed greater appreciation of the role of the manufacturer, trader and the farmer. But the margin of their better handling of economic elements was only slight. Financial muscle and geopolitics (1660-1815): The decline of France and the rise of Britain After 1660, a genuinely multi polar system emerged in Europe. Each state increasingly tended to make decisions about war and peace on the basis of national interests rather than for transnational, religious causes. A system of short-term, shifting alliances emerged. Countries which had been foes in one war often found themselves partners in the next. A crude trilateral equilibrium emerged, consisting of France, Prussia and the Habsburgs. Britain and Russia were the other two leading powers. The most significant changes occurring in the military and naval fields were in organization. The enhanced authority and resources of the state gave to the armed forces a degree of performance which had often not existed, a century earlier. Not only were there professional standing armies and royal navies, there was also a much more developed infrastructure. War academies, barracks, ship-repair yards and the like, came up with administrators to run them. As the military establishments became more sophisticated, the need arose for creating financial institutions which could raise and manage capital. The apacity to maintain credit worthiness and mobilise supplies became very important. States could not fund wars with their normal revenues. There was the danger that steep rises in taxes would provoke domestic unrest. So, the only way a government could finance a war was by borrowing, selling bonds and selling offices. The two-way system of raising and simultaneously spending vast sums o f money spurred the development of western capitalism. The success of the system was critically dependent on two factors – reasonably efficient machinery for raising loans and the maintenance of the government’s credit rating. Amsterdam, which satisfied both conditions, become the leading financial centre of the world. In Britain, an institutional framework evolved, which permitted the mobilization and servicing of long-term loans efficiently. The process was facilitated by the establishment of the Bank of England in 1694, a flourishing stock exchange and growth of the banking system. The obligations of the state were guaranteed by successive parliaments. Also, customs and excise revenues increased as trade commerce expanded. Interest rates steadily dropped. British government stock become attractive to foreign investors in general and the Dutch in particular. Compared to Britain, the French public finance system was relatively weak. The French monarchy’s financial operations had been managed from the middle ages by a cluster of bodies – municipal governments, the clergy, provincial estates and tax farmers. The organization was lax and inherently corrupt. Much of the taxpayer’s money ended up in private hands. During times of war, the financial system let the French down. It is not however correct to say that financial clout alone determined the fate of nations. Amsterdam was the greatest financial centre in the world, but the United Provinces (erstwhile Netherlands) declined in importance. Russia was economically backward but it played an important role in European affairs. This trend can be attributed to geopolitics. Was a particular nation able to concentrate its energies upon one front? Did it share common borders with weak ones or powerful ones? Was it chiefly a land power, a sea power or a hybrid? France, for example, suffered from being a hybrid power during the 18th century. Its attention and energies were divided between continental aims on the one hand and maritime and colonial ambitions on the other. France was unable to launch decisive campaigns because in each direction, she had to manage various interests simultaneously. Again, Britain was in a better position. Being an island, Britain could focus more on the sea. And the British continued to team up with other European powers to fight the French on the continent. During the period 1660-1815, it was Great Britain which made the most decisive advances, finally dislodging France as the greatest of the powers. The British and the French governments decided to settle their differences in 1748 under the Treaty of Aix-la-Chappelle. Diplomatic talks arranged for a general return to status quo. But the agreement was more in the nature of a truce. In the 1762-63 settlements, Great Britain emerged the clear winner. It had made advances in the West Indies and East Africa. It had virtually eliminated French influence from India. It was supreme in North America. The French were determined to extract advantages from any problems which Britain might encounter overseas. When Britain’s war with the American colonies started, it was in a much weaker position. In the 1776-83 conflict, Britain was engaged in land fighting, thousands of miles away from home and it had to fight unaided by other European powers who could distract the French. Britain’s concessions at the1783 Peace of Versailles was not a reversal of the great imperial gains of 1763. But the French were reasonably satisfied at the creation of an independent US and at the blow dealt to Britain’s global leadership. The rise and fall of Napoleon But France’s position continued to deteriorate owing to the costs of wars and its failure to reform national finances. From 1787 onwards, France looked less and less capable of playing a decisive role in foreign affairs. The French did try to reform their army organization. And the Revolution of 1789 gave the reformers the opportunity to put their concepts into practice when war broke out. With an army of about 650,000 in July 1793, fired by enthusiasm and willing to take the risks involved in lengthy marches and aggressive tactics, the French were soon over running neighbouring territories. Though the French had organizational lacunae, the necessary political commitment and strategic thinking were also missing among its enemies who did not take the French threat seriously, early on. But if the British could not defeat France, the French would not undermine the naval mastery of the British. British control of the sea routes could not by itself undermine French hegemony in Europe. And Napoleon’s military mastery could not induce the islanders to surrender. Like the whale and the elephant, each was by far the largest entity in its respective region. Around 1801, the two sides were thinking of peace. But hostility increased when the British found themselves denied access to trade in much of Europe and French intrigues continued in various parts of the world. The final round of the Anglo French wars lasted for 12 years and was the most testing. The British won back several overseas possessions of the French. The Franco-Spanish fleets were thrashed soundly by the British in Trafalgar in October 1805. Meanwhile, Napoleon’s position on land continued to be strong. Napoleon also imposed bans on British exports to Europe. These trading bans hurt England, but they were were never applied long or consistently enough to take effect. Also, the British tapped other markets and total exports rose during the period 1794-96 to 1814-16. Moreover, the momentum of the British economy was maintained by the industrial revolution. So, the British were able to endure the costs of war better than the Napoleonic empire. During the period 1789-1815, the competitiveness of French agriculture and industry declined. Indeed, to a large extent, Napoleonic imperialism was financed by plunder. Though Napoleon’s system looked unbeatable, cracks soon began to appear. By entering Spain and Portugal, Napoleon committed a strategic blunder. A friendly Spain undid the earlier damage done to British trade. The French overstretch reflecting Napoleon’s own hubris, was by this time extreme. Any major setback affected other parts of the system since they had to be drained of troops in order to repair the broken front. The defeat at Leipzig in October 1813 was a major set back to the French. As fighting started on their own soil, the French public became less than enthusiastic. As France grew weaker, European powers seized the initiative to surround it with an array of strong buffer states. Controlling most of Europe’s colonies by 1815, dominating the maritime routes and the profitable re-export trades and well ahead of other societies in the process of industrialization, the British were now the richest nation in per capita terms. Over the next 50 years, Britain would emerge as the global economic superpower. Napoleon’s refusal to compromise ensured not only his downfall but his greatest enemy’s supreme victory. Industrialisation and the shifting global balances, 1815-85 In the 50 years following Napoleon’s downfall, an integrated global economy began to take shape. The erosion of tariff barriers and widespread propagation of ideas about free trade and international harmony, resulted in a new order. There were conflicts but none except the American civil war became a major one. Technology developed during the industrial revolution, began to make its impact on military and naval warfare. The shifts in balance of power caused by the uneven pattern of industrial and technological change probably affected the outcome of mid 19th century wars, more than did finance and credit. Most of the wars were relatively short. The emphasis was on a speedy victory in the field using existing military strength rather than the long-term mobilization of national resources and the sharing of fresh revenues. The industrial revolution in Britain increased productivity on a sustained basis. The expansion in national wealth and in the population’s purchasing power easily outweighed the increase in population. Inanimate sources of power replaced animate sources, resulting in greatly increased productivity, especially in the textile industries. This stimulated a demand for more machines, more raw materials, more iron, more shipping, better communications and so on. The nation’s per capita income went up and the demand of urban workers for food increased. But this could be easily met. Countries such as China and India found their share of world manufacturing shrink. The penetration of their traditional markets by far cheaper and better products of the Lancashire textile factories seriously undermined their industrial competitiveness. In 1800, Europeans occupied or controlled 35% of the world’s land surface, in 1878, 67% and by 1914 over 84%. Steam engines and machine-made tools gave Europe decisive economic and military advantages. The UK became the unchallenged global superpower. Between 1760 and 1830, the UK was responsible for around two thirds of Europe’s industrial growth of output. Its share of world manufacturing production leaped from 1. 9 to 9. 5% in the next 300 years and in the next 30 years to 19. 9%. Around 1860, when British might was at its peak, the UK produced 53% of the world’s iron, 50% of its coal and lignite and consumed about half the world’s raw cotton output. British shipping also dominated the world. The ideology of the day preached peace, minimal government expenditures and reduction of state controls over the economy and the individual. So, the modernization which occurred in British industry and communications was not paralleled by improvements in the army. The economic dominance of the British was not quite reflected in their military power. But the British navy and British colonialism were more or less unchallenged. Between 1815 and 1880, the British empire existed in a vacuum. Which is why the colonial army could be kept relatively small. Meanwhile, Britain’s economic progress continued impressively. Britons became major foreign investors. The British economy acted as a vast bellows, sucking in enormous amounts of raw materials and foodstuffs and sending out vast quantities of textiles, iron goods and other manufactures. This was complemented by a network of shipping lines, insurance arrangements and banking links. The British began to play a pivotal role in international trade and international finance. Britain also contributed to the industrialization of other nations. The path taken by the French was different. The French were not short of capital but they deliberately chose not to invest in large scale industrial enterprises. They concentrated on high quality rather than mass-produced goods. The relative military as well as economic power of the French continued to decline. France’s army was inferior to that of Russia and its navy to that of the British. But the French were keen on playing an important role in Europe and were very active diplomatically. Russia’s relative power declined the most during the post 1815 decades. GNP did increase. But this was mainly due to an increase in population and not any increase in productivity. A general lack of capital, low consumer demand, a miniscule middle class, vast distances, extreme climates and the heavy hand of an autocratic, suspicious state made the prospects for industrial take off more difficult in Russia than in the rest of Europe. Meanwhile, the development of America was taking place impressively. Steady industrial growth and ready availability of land resulted in labour shortages. Manufacturers began to invest in labour saving machinery, further boosting productivity. By 1800, wages in America were one third higher than in Western Europe. By 1861, the United States had become an economic giant. But its distance from Europe and lack of participation in international trade, disguised this fact. The Americans, till the Civil War, spent relatively little on defence. But the Civil war transformed the US into the greatest military nation in the world. The powers which were defeated during this period were those that failed to adjust to the military revolution of the mid 19th century – acquisition of new weapons, mobilizing and equipping of large armies, the use of improved ommunications offered by the railways, steamship, telegraph and a productive industrial base. The winning sides did commit blunders from time to time. But these blunders were more than made up by their trained manpower, supply, organization and economic base. The coming of a Bipolar world (1885-1918) It is interesting to track the important economic and military developments in the major countries during this period. Italy: As opposed to a cluster of rivaling small states, there was now a solid block of 30 million people in Italy. Within just a decade of reunifying, Italy had become one of the great European powers. But the country was economically very weak. When it came to literacy, agricultural productivity and per capita national wealth, Italy continued to be a laggard. Italy had only 25% of Great Britain’s industrial strength in 1900. It had a share of less than 2. 5% of the world’s manufacturing output. The country’s inadequate railway network made troops deployment difficult. Other problems which Italy faced were serious north-south imbalances and hostilities between the church and the State. Japan (1885-1918): Japan’s transformation began under the Meiji Restoration. A new constitution was established. The legal system was revamped. The educational system was expanded. A modem banking system evolved. The state encouraged the creation of a railway network, telegraphs and shipping lines. It supported industries like iron and steel, ship building and textiles. But there were some fundamental weaknesses. The country was heavily dependent on agriculture. Because of small holdings, agricultural productivity was not very high. But Japan’s isolation helped it to emerge as one of the great powers. Besides, morale was also high. According to Kennedy, â€Å"It seems indisputable that the strong Japanese sense of cultural uniqueness, the traditions of emperor worship and veneration of the state, the samurai ethos of military honour and valour, the emphasis upon discipline and fortitude, produced a political culture at once fiercely patriotic and unlikely to be deterred by sacrifices and reinforced the Japanese impulse to expand into â€Å"Greater East Asia’ for strategical security as well as markets and raw materials. †¦ The Samurai spirit, it seemed, could secure battlefield victories with the bayonet even in the age of mass industrialised warfare. If, as all the contemporary military experts concluded, morale and discipline were still vital pre-requisites of national power, Japan was rich in those resources. † Indeed, the great powers could not attempt any thing in the Far East without considering Japan’s response. Germany: By 1914, Germany had become the most powerful state in Europe. The country’s population soared from 49 million in 1890 to 66 million in 1913. Germany achieved high levels of education, social services and per capita income. The country built an impressive system of schools, polytechnics and universities. Industries such as coal, steel, electrical equipment, optics and chemicals all grew impressively. By 1913, Germany was one of the leading exporters in the world. It had a 14. 8% share of global manufacturing output compared to Britain’s 13. 6% and France’s 6. 1%. With the exception of Britain, Germany could afford to spend on armaments, more than any other European state. But Germany’s weakness lay in its geography as well as diplomacy. Its very creation affected the interests of Austria-Hungary and France. As Germany lay in the centre of the continent, its growth appeared to threaten a number of other Great Powers simultaneously. Unlike Bismarck, many of the other German leaders did not display great diplomacy. Germany combined the modern, industrialized strength of Western democracies, with the autocratic decision making features of the eastern monarchies. So, it was a formidable power. France: France’s main enemy was Germany. But Italy’s naval and colonial challenge was also disturbing. Anglo-French clashes weakened France’s position. But the country did make significant economic progress. Till Henry Ford came, France was the leading automobile producer in the world. Railways, telegraphs, postal systems and inland waterways also showed tremendous improvements. The country’s sizable foreign investments yielded significant political and diplomatic benefits though the economic benefits were far from clear. Also, the French economy was smaller than that of Germany. The country also did not have economies of scale in coal, steel and iron. But the French were in a mood to do battle. A patriotic revival took place after 1911. France’s national confidence was also boosted by the diplomatic efforts of foreign minister, Delcasse. Though France was not in a position to take on Germany one to one, it was wealthy, military strong and had powerful allies. So, French enthusiasm was high. Great Britain: In 1900, Great Britain possessed the largest empire, the world had ever seen. But its relative industrial and commercial strength had declined. The US and Germany had overtaken Britain industrially. But Britain still remained the leading power in the world because of its financial resources, productive capacity, imperial possession and naval strength. However, Britain was now a mature state and was in favour of preserving the status quo. Russia: Russia’s sheer size and the strength of its standing army were impressive. But economically, it was not strong. Russian industrialization was essentially carried out by foreigners. Native entrepreneurship was virtually missing. Russia accumulated the largest foreign debt in the world. 80% of the population derived its livelihood from agriculture. A good proportion of the remainder was rooted in village ties. According to Kennedy, â€Å"What was happening was that a country of extreme economic backwardness was being propelled into the modern age by political authorities obsessed by the need to acquire and retain the status of a European Great Power The great thrust toward modernization was state-inspired and related to military needs. † But resources at Russia’s disposal were limited. According to a source quoted by Kennedy, by 1913, the average Russian had 50% or more of his income appropriated by the state for current defence than did the average Englishman, even though the average Russian’s income was only 27 percent of that of his British contemporary. The discipline introduced in factories and relatively low living standards created an ideal breeding ground for radicals. The government kept the tax burden on the rich to the minimum but increased the burden on the poor. Russia also did not have the competent civil servants which countries like Germany, Britain and Japan had. United States: After the civil war, economic development in the US was breathtaking. The country combined its natural resources and technological advancements, to its advantage. The US had a vastly superior railway network, compared to Russia. US firms generated economies of scale as they enjoyed a huge domestic market. By 1914, US national income both in absolute and per capita terms was higher than that of anyone else. It was growing so fast that it was on the verge of overtaking the whole of Europe. The role of foreign trade in the growth of the US economy was initially small. Later, the transportation revolution and the growth of its industry boosted US exports. Between 1860 and 1914, the US increased its exports seven times. A vast trade surplus with Europe resulted in huge capital inflows from that continent. Given its turn-of the country rapprochement with Great Britain, the US was immensely secure. It did not have to worry about other major powers. As a result, the US could afford to spend less on armaments. Even more than Britain, the US continued to show a dislike of mass standing armies and avoided fixed military obligations to allies. The growth of alliances and World War I In the 1890s, alliance blocs emerged. Germany, Austria-Hungary and Italy combined against France and Russia. The US remained on the sidelines on the eve of World War I. Austria-Hungary and Italy remained weak powers. While Russia’s arms output did increase, its transportation system was inadequate. France needed British and American military assistance. During the first two or three years of war, it sustained many casualties. The British also came to depend on the US. The British Royal Navy was quite unprepared to counter the unrestricted U-boat warfare, which the Germans launched by early 1917. But Britain was an economic superpower, in spite of a major trade deficit with the US. It had a crucial rule to play in financing the war efforts. Germany had intelligent, motivated personnel on the fronts, a large population and a strong industrial base. But popular morale suffered as the authoritarian regime exercised all sorts of controls over the German society and economy to meet the demands of war. Agriculture was also neglected. The unrestricted U-boat campaign launched by the Germans and the revelations of secret German offers to Mexico of an alliance prompted the US to enter the war. Though the US army was not fully prepared for war, its sheer economic might and industrial strength swung the tide in favour of the allies. Finally, the Germans were outnumbered and outpowered by the combined economic muscle of the allied forces. As Kennedy puts it, â€Å"The overall course of that conflict – the early stalemate between the two sides, the ineffectiveness of the Italian entry, the slow exhaustion of Russia, the decisiveness of the American intervention in keeping up the allied pressures and the eventual collapse of the central powers correlates closely with the economic and industrial production and effectively mobilized available forces to each alliance during the different phases of the struggle. To be sure, generals still had to direct their campaigns, troops still had to summon the individual moral coverage to assault an enemy position and sailors still had to endure the rigorous of sea warfare but the record indicates that such qualities and talents existed on both sides and were not enjoyed in disproportionate measure by one of the coalitions. What was enjoyed by one side, particularly after 1917 was a marked superiority in productive forces. † The coming of a Bipolar World (1919-42) During this period, the most striking change in Europe was the emergence of a cluster of nation states – Poland, Czechoslovakia, Austria, Hungary, Yugoslavia, Finland, the Baltic states. The first world war had seen a lot of damage to life and property. After decades of growth, world manufacturing output had sharply declined. In many countries, public debt rose sharply as did inflation. Competitive depreciation of currencies led to financial instability and political rivalry. Between 1914 and 1919, the centre of global finance moved across the Atlantic. But the US was still more of a domestic economy, protectionist inclined, and not fully integrated into the global economy. The US was also saddled with excess capacity in some industries. In the 1930s, the differential growth rates were more marked than they had been in the 1930s. The remarkably different ways in which national economic policy was pursued meant that output and wealth could be rising in one country while falling in another. The armed forces had become more dependent than ever on the productive capacity of their nations. The future of the armed forces was increasing